Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd) Batteries
Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd) batteries, one of the earliest rechargeable technologies, dominated industrial and consumer markets from the 1970s to the 1990s, particularly in early drones and military equipment. Valued for their exceptional cycle life and resilience in extreme environments, NiCd batteries were gradually phased out after 2006 due to toxic cadmium pollution and severe memory effects, as mandated by regulations like the EU’s Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) Directive. Today, their use is restricted to niche applications.
Core Characteristics of NiCd Batteries
1. Chemistry and Structure
Electrode Materials:
o Cathode: Nickel oxyhydroxide (NiOOH), releasing electrons via redox reactions.
o Anode: Metallic cadmium (Cd), reacting with potassium hydroxide electrolyte.
Electrolyte: Highly alkaline potassium hydroxide (pH ≈14), enabling high ionic conductivity.
Encapsulation: Sealed steel or plastic casings, impact-resistant but heavy (2x heavier than LiPo).
2. Performance Parameters
Energy Density: 40-60 Wh/kg (1/5 of LiPo), unsuitable for modern lightweight drones.
Voltage: 1.2V per cell, requiring multi-cell configurations for higher voltage.
Cycle Life: 1,000-2,000 cycles (70% capacity retention), outperforming early NiMH and LiPo.
Self-Discharge: 20-30% monthly loss, demanding frequent recharging during storage.
3. Strengths and Limitations
Strengths:
o Extreme Durability: Tolerates overcharge, deep discharge, and high temperatures (-40°C to 60°C).
o High Discharge Rates: Supports 20C bursts for power-intensive applications.
o Low Cost: Cheap raw materials and simple manufacturing.
Flaws:
o Cadmium Toxicity: Classified as a Group 1 carcinogen by WHO, with soil contamination persisting >30 years.
o Memory Effect: Partial cycling causes rapid capacity loss, requiring periodic full discharges.
o Low Energy Density: 3x heavier than LiPo for equivalent capacity.
4. Historical Applications
Military Drones (1980s-2000s): e.g., U.S. "Pioneer" drones, leveraging NiCd’s cold-weather reliability.
Industrial Systems: Backup power for telecom towers, railway signaling, and other long-life scenarios.
Early Consumer Electronics: Camcorders, power tools, and other high-current devices.
Conclusion
1. Regulatory Timeline:
The EU RoHS Directive (2006) banned NiCd in consumer electronics.
Post-2010, most countries restricted NiCd to specialized industrial uses (e.g., aviation emergency systems).
2. Legacy and Implications:
Technological Foundation: Paved the way for cadmium-free alternatives like NiMH.
Environmental Wake-Up Call: Spurred global e-waste regulations (e.g., Basel Convention).
3. User Guidelines:
Prohibited Uses: Never deploy NiCd in consumer drones or public environments.
Disposal: Mandatory recycling through certified facilities (＞96% cadmium recovery required).
Alternatives: Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO₄) for industrial needs (＞3,000 cycles).
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